Baily, T.F., & Baily, W. H. (1986). Operational Definitions of Child Emotional Maltreatment (Final Report 90-CA-0956): NCCAN.
Definitions of child emotional maltreatment were developed, refined, and rated through a total of 207 respondents in the states of Alabama, Mississippi, Virginia, Vermont, and Maine. Participants came from all segments of protective service practice. Seven questionnaires were used to develop, refine, and rate the parental behaviors. Seventy-nine separate parental behaviors were defined in the pre-school (0-5) group, eighty behaviors were developed in the latency (6-12) group, and seventy-eight in the adolescent (13-17) group. These individual behaviors were put into clusters, with sixteen categories for pre-school children, and fifteen categories each for latency children and adolescents. Respondents rated combined parent-child behaviors according to four criteria: 1) this is/is not maltreatment, 2) this is maltreatment and services should be offered, 3) services should be offered under court direction, and 4) the child should be removed from the home.
Barnett, D., Manly, M. T., & Cicchetti, D. (1991). Continuing toward an operational definition of psychological maltreatment. Development and Psychopathology, 3(1), 19-29.
Reviews R. A. McGee and D. A. Wolfe's (see PA, Vol 79:1837) definition of psychological maltreatment (PMT) and suggests dimensions necessary to specify the content of an operational definition. These dimensions include exclusion criteria (physical abuse and neglect, distal forms of PMT, evidence of child disturbance, moderating variables such as age); inclusion criteria (psychologically damaging verbal or nonverbal parent to child communications); and the methodology for assessing the construct. The present authors contend that (1) McGee and Wolfe's approach raises questions concerning the role of research in developing operational definitions of PMT; (2) decisions about what constitutes PMT cannot be made solely on the basis of research results, but must also be based on societal standards; and (3) there needs to be agreement over the conceptual criteria for PMT. The authors summarize their technique of classifying and quantifying child PMT.
Belsky, J. (1991). Definitional limitations and unstated assumptions. Development and Psychopathology, 3(1), 31-36.
Contends that R. A. McGee and D. A. Wolfe, in critiquing definitions of child psychological maltreatment (PMT) and proposing their own operational definition, have failed to advance the definitional state of the field. The present author highlights specific concerns about McGee and Wolfe's definition and raises broad questions about unstated assumptions that underlie their work. Various ideas advanced by McGee and Wolfe are critically examined, such as their definition of PMT as "an interaction between aversive parental behaviors and the special vulnerabilities and strengths of a given child," their proposal that PMT be regarded as (psychologically damaging) parent to child communication, and their concern for potential harm. Their unstated assumptions are viewed in terms of what might be construed as psychologically harmful Vs potentially beneficial behavior in different cultures.
Bolig, R., Kantor-Martin, R., Nissen, H. L., & Volton, K. A. (1991). Contexts for maltreatment in day-care centers: Conceptualization and implications.Children's Environments Quarterly, 8(1), 17-24.
Describes nonsexual forms of maltreatment in daycare settings that may occur under the guise of curriculum. Forms of day- care maltreatment are described (e.g., failure to provide adequate food, shelter, and safety; failure to provide adequate need gratification) as are the conditions likely to create a context for abuse and neglect. Physical abuse, psychological abuse, verbal abuse, and developmental/educational abuse are examined. Potential impact of day-care maltreatment is also discussed.
Brassard, M. R., & Gelardo, M. S. (1987). Psychological maltreatment: The unifying construct in child abuse and neglect. School Psychology Review, 16(2), 127-136.
Psychological maltreatment is increasingly receiving attention as a prevalent and destructive form of child abuse and neglect that constitutes a mental health problem. This article discusses the current state of knowledge of psychological maltreatment; a rationale for its study; its impact on school readiness and academic achievement; and directions for intervention.
Brassard, M. R., Germain, R., & Hart, S. N. (1987). Psychological Maltreatment of Children and Youth. New York: Pergamon Press.
Brassard, M. R., & Hart, S. N. (1987). Emotional Abuse: Words Can Hurt. Chicago: National Committee to Prevent Child Abuse.
Brassard, M. R., Hart, S. N., & Hardy, D. B. (1993). The psychological maltreatment rating scales. Child Abuse and Neglect, 17(6), 715-729.
Developed the Psychological Maltreatment Rating Scales (PMRS) for assessing psychological maltreatment in mother-child interaction. They were used to rate the videotaped interaction of 49 high-risk mother-child dyads and to make predictions of child protective service involvement with the dyads. These predictions are compared with predictions based upon mothers' personal resources and social support. Results show that the PMRS is a moderately reliable and valid measure of psychologically maltreating and prosocial parental behavior that can discriminate between maltreating and comparison parents, and is a more effective predictor than maternal measures. Three factors of parenting emerged from an exploratory factor analysis: emotional abuse, and 2 factors of positive parenting. Psychological abuse was the presence of hostile behavior, and psychological neglect the absence of positive parenting.
Braver, M., Brumberry, J., Green, K., & Rawson, R. (1992). Child abuse and current psychological functioning in a university counseling center population. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 39(2), 252-257.
84 university counseling center clients (61 women and 23 men) self-reporting childhood physical, sexual, or emotional abuse ( n = 30) or no childhood abuse ( n = 54) completed 3 measures of psychological functioning. Multivariate analysis of variance revealed that clients reporting abuse were more depressed (with the mean Beck Depression Inventory score in the borderline clinical depression range), had more symptomatology (with the mean Global Severity Index of the Brief Symptom Inventory at about the average level of a psychiatric outpatient population), and scored higher on the Borderline Personality scale of the Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory (with the mean base-rate score near the cutoff score for presence of borderline personality features). 19 clients reporting emotional abuse only did not differ on any measure from 11 clients reporting sexual or multiple forms of abuse.
Briere, J., & Runtz, M. (1988). Multivariate correlates of childhood psychological and physical maltreatment among university women. Child Abuse and Neglect, 12(3), 331-341.
Little is known about the long-term effects of psychological or physical child abuse, despite recent advances in the related area of childhood sexual victimization. The present study used multivariate techniques to examine the relationship between four newly devised scales, measuring the extent of psychological symptoms in 251 university women. Results suggest two independent relationships: a global association between all four forms of maltreatment and almost all symptom variables and specific connections between paternal psychological and physical maltreatment, maternal physical maltreatment, and smaller subsets of symptoms. The data are interpreted as supporting an "ecological" perspective on abuse effects as well as demonstrating the value of multivariate methodologies in this area.
Briere, J., & Runtz, M. (1990). Differential adult symptomology associated with three types of child abuse. Child Abuse and Neglect, 14(3), 357-364.
Examined 277 female undergraduates' retrospective reports of childhood sexual, physical, and psychological abuse as they related to 3 types of current psychosocial dysfunction. Three scales were developed to assess abuse-related self- esteem, maladaptive sexual behavior, and aggression. Multivariate analysis revealed that a history of psychological abuse was uniquely associated with low self- esteem, physical abuse was linked to aggression toward others, and sexual abuse was specifically related to maladaptive sexual behavior. This analysis also indicated that physical and emotional abuse were often present together in a combination associated with generalized psychosocial problems.
Burnett, B. B. (1993). The psychological abuse of latency age children: A survey. Child Abuse and Neglect, 17(4), 441-454.
Attempted to identify potential definitions of psychological abuse by submitting vignettes with adult behaviors to be rated as psychological child abuse or not by 381 citizens and by 452 social workers. Both groups identified 9 types of adult behavior to be abuse (confining a child to a small space, severe public humiliation, singling out a child for rejection, severe verbal abuse, encouraging delinquency, threatening, denial of psychological treatment, not allowing social and emotional growth, and not providing a loving atmosphere). There was no difference on the ratings between respondent groups except for gender. Female respondents were more likely to rate the vignettes as child abuse and serious, and they wanted more drastic intervention than did male respondents.
Cicchetti, D. (1989). Child Maltreatment: Theory and Research on the Causes and Consequences of Child Abuse and Neglect. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Cicchetti, D. (1991). Defining psychological maltreatment: Reflections and future directions. Development and Psychopathology, 3(1), 1-2.
Claussen, A. H., & Crittenden, P. M. (1991). Physical and psychological maltreatment: Relations among types of maltreatment. Child Abuse and Neglect, 15(1-2), 5-18.
Hypothesized that psychological maltreatment would be present in almost all cases of physical maltreatment and that it would be more related to detrimental outcomes for children than would severity of injury. 175 maltreated children (aged 2-6 yrs), 39 Ss in mental health treatment, and 176 normative Ss were assessed for type and severity of maltreatment. Both hypotheses were supported. Evidence was provided that psychological maltreatment can occur alone. Assessments of parental psychologically maltreating behavior and negative child outcomes were highly correlated. Finally, child age and gender were unrelated to psychological maltreatment in young children, whereas family income was related to greater risk of physical and cognitive neglect.
Conlee, K. M. (1986). Emotional abuse: The hidden crime in the classroom. Contemporary Education, 57(2), 66-71.
This article introduces a conceptual model of emotional or psychological abuse as applied to destructive teacher student interactions in the school environment. The model distinguishes between growth-enhancing and growth-debilitating actions by teachers.
Cook, D. (1991). College students from emotionally neglectful homes. New Directions for Student Services, 54, 77-90.
Hypothesized that psychological maltreatment would be present in almost all cases of physical maltreatment and that it would be more related to detrimental outcomes for children than would severity of injury. 175 maltreated children (aged 2-6 yrs), 39 Ss in mental health treatment, and 176 normative Ss were assessed for type and severity of maltreatment. Both hypotheses were supported. Evidence was provided that psychological maltreatment can occur alone. Assessments of parental psychologically maltreating behavior and negative child outcomes were highly correlated. Finally, child age and gender were unrelated to psychological maltreatment in young children, whereas family income was related to greater risk of physical and cognitive neglect.
Crittenden, P. M. (1989). Behavioral and theoretical approaches to emotional maltreatment : NCCAN.
The study of 429 children, ages 2-6, and their families found that: (1) All physically abused or neglected children experience emotional maltreatment. (2) Substantial numbers of children at risk for the effects of emotional maltreatment are not in protective or mental health systems. (3) Most non-reported victims of emotional maltreatment did not experience physical maltreatment. (4) Severity of emotional maltreatment predicted severity of developmental outcomes, while severity of physical maltreatment did not. Severity of physical neglect was mildly predictive. (5) Emotional abuse can be differentiated from emotional neglect on the basis of parental behavior, but not in terms of child outcomes. (6) Child age was not related to severity of outcomes from any types of maltreatment except physical abuse during the preschool years. (7) Some aspects of family functioning can buffer children from effects, but the effect is not strong. (8) Low income children experience more severe physical and cognitive neglect, but physical and emotional abuse occurred across income groups. (9) Siblings of reported children experienced maltreatment and effects as severe as those of the reported child. (10) Developmental anomalies were related to distorted psychological environments rather than to physical maltreatment or low income.
Crittenden, P. M., Claussen, A. H., & Sugarman, D. B. (1994). Physical and psychological maltreatment in middle childhood and adolescence. Development and Psychopathology,
Although maltreatment is known to have detrimental effects on socioemotional development, the relation of those effects to type of maltreatment and child age is not clear. Most studies either focus solely on physical abuse or do not differentiate among types of maltreatment. Furthermore, most concentrate on young children. Studies of psychological maltreatment in young children indicate that physical abuse and psychological maltreatment tend to co-occur, severity of injury is not related to severity of psychological maltreatment or to developmental problems, and severity of psychological maltreatment is related to developmental outcomes. The present study investigated (a) relations among types of physical and psychological maltreatment and (b) their effect on development in an ethnically diverse sample of maltreated school-age children and adolescents. The results indicated that, as in young children, physical and psychological maltreatment co-occurred in most cases. As with young children, severity of emotional abuse was related to severity of physical neglect in school-age children; among adolescents, however, it was related to severity of physical injury. Moreover, severity of emotional abuse was related to both behavior problems and depression. The differences between the patterns of effects for school-age children and those for adolescents are discussed, as are implications of the findings for intervention.
De-Bellis, M.D. & Putnam, F.W. (1994). The psychology of childhood maltreatment. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 3(4) 663-678.
Clinical experience indicates that childhood maltreatment results in an array of long-term effects. Little is known about the neurobiological mechanisms underlying these sequelae. Drawing on preclinical animal models of stress and studies of adults with posttraumatic stress disorder, this article reviews the neurotransmitter, neuroendocrine, and immune system responses likely to be activated by childhood maltreatment. Knowledge of the psychobiological effects of maltreatment can inform future therapists of the many victims of child abuse.
Edmundson, S. E., & Collier, P. (1993). Child protection and emotional abuse: Definition, identification, and usefulness within an educational setting. Educational Psychology in Practice, 8(4), 198-206.
Examined the education role in identifying emotional abuse (EA), placed EA within its current legal context, and outlined problems in reaching a working definition of EA by administering 2 structured interviews. Interview 1 was given to 17 child protection persons in elementary schools, and Interview 2 was given to 20 elementary class teachers who suspected the emotional abuse of a child in their class. Both groups chose the school's educational psychologist (EP) frequently, and 8 class teachers had actually referred a child to the EP for suspected EA. Two definitions were suggested for clarifying some of the ambiguities in working with EA. Definition 1 must encompass operational definitions to help teachers and other professionals to identify abused children. Definition 2 must be acceptable to the legal profession.
Egeland, B., Sroufe, L. A., & Erickson, M. (1983). The developmental consequence of different patterns of maltreatment. Child Abuse and Neglect, 7, 459-469.
From a longitudinal study of 267 high risk families, four different patterns of maltreatment were identified. The mothers have been tested, interviewed and observed in a number of situations starting during the last trimester of pregnancy and continuing at regularly scheduled intervals through the preschool period. The four maltreatment groups were: physical abuse; hostile/verbally abusive; psychologically unavailable; and neglecting. A control group of mothers who provided adequate care was selected from the remaining high risk sample. In an earlier follow-up, among the maltreated children a disproportionately large number of infants were found to be anxiously attached to their mothers at 12 and 18 months, and their performance in a problem-solving situation at age two was poor. In the current follow-up, the children were videotaped at 42 months in a "barrier box" and teaching situation, and at 56 months they were observed in a preschool situation. The physically abused children were distractible, lacked persistence, ego control and enthusiasm, and experienced considerable negative emotion. The children whose mothers were psychologically unavailable showed marked increases in maladaptive patterns of functioning from infancy through preschool. As expected, they were avoidant of their mother, angry, noncompliant, and they were highly dependent. The neglected children had the most difficulty pulling themselves together to deal with various tasks. They lacked the self-esteem and agency necessary to cope with their environment.
Egeland, B. (1991). From data to definition. Development and Psychopathology, 3(1), 37-43.
Argues that although R. A. McGee and D. A. Wolfe (see PA, Vol 79:1837) raise important questions and provide information useful in clarifying the construct of child psychological maltreatment (PMT), they fail to address the complexity of the clinical realities of PMT. The problem in defining PMT in terms of parental communications is that it does not specify harmful parental behaviors (PBs). This proposed empirical definition restricts aversive PBs to communications that can be observed, quantified, and directly measured. The present author advocates a transactional model for understanding the effects of PMT on children, citing his longitudinal study of high-risk parents and their children (M. F. Erickson et al; 1989) in which a complex relationship is found between maltreatment and developmental maladaptation.
Engels, M.-L., & Moisan, D. (1994). The psychological maltreatment inventory: Development of a measure of psychological maltreatment in childhood for use in adult settings. Psychological Reports, 74(2), 595-604.
Developed a 25-item inventory of childhood psychological maltreatment and examined the relationships between experiences of childhood maltreatment and 5 clinical measures. Two major factors (emotional neglect and hostile rejection) emerged from a factor analytic study of the responses of 118 clinical outpatients (aged 20-61 yrs). Reported childhood experiences of emotional neglect and hostile rejection were related to several measures of psychological dysfunction among the outpatients. Taken together, the 5 measures of reliability and validity are relevant to the construct validity of the inventory.
Erickson, M. F., & Egeland, B. (1987). A developmental view of the psychological consequences of maltreatment. School Psychology Review, 16(2), 156-168.
Central to all patterns of maltreatment is insensitivity to the emotional needs of the child. Such insensitivity by caregivers early in the child's life has been shown to have long-term effects on the child's psychological development. This article includes a summary of findings on the consequences of maltreatment in early childhood, followed by a discussion of major developmental issues during infancy and toddlerhood and salient features of sensitive and insensitive parenting during those periods. Finally, the article addresses implications of this information for school psychologists.
Eron, L. D., & Huesmann, L. R. (1987). Television as a source of maltreatment of children. School Psychology Review, 16(2), 195-202.
This article reviews the research findings which have established relations between television viewing and the subsequent attitudes and behaviors of viewers, emphasizing the influence of televised violence. It identifies the implications and remedies for public policy, for society, and for the parents and educators responsible for children's daily experiences.
Evoy, J. J. (1981). The Rejected: Psychological Consequences of Parental Rejection. University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University.
Evoy seeks to establish the norms of parental rejection, concluding that it may be active or passive, blatant or subtle, acknowledged or concealed- but that it seems always to reflect some parental resentment. He also examines the major elements of the "rejected's" feelings and behaviors, including damaged self esteem; concealment of their real selves; efforts to disprove low self evaluation; fear, anxiety, guilt, or depression; anger, hostility, or aggression.
Firestone, R. W. (1993). The Universality Of Emotional Child Abuse : The Glendon Association.
Emotional child abuse is virtually inevitable in the context of the traditional nuclear family and often has a more detrimental effect on children than other, more widely publicized forms of maltreatment. Clinical, statistical, and empirical evidence shows that normative child-rearing practices in Western culture have pathogenic properties and effects. Parental abuse in the traditional nuclear family often results in the personal suffering, limitation, and maladjustment of children. Manifestations of this abuse include: (1) behavior based on parental hostility such as verbal abuse, sadistic socialization, and lack of respect for a child's boundaries, spontaneity, and individuality; (2) destructive practices including permissiveness and inconsistency; (3) overly restrictive or harsh moral codes; and (4) defenses and addictive patterns which tend to transmit from parents to children. A number of factors are involved in the psychodynamics of emotional maltreatment: (1) parents' ambivalent feelings toward themselves and their children; (2) their projection of their negative traits onto their children; (3) a confusion of emotional hunger with love; (4) the exclusivity of traditional couplings; and (5) the utilization of the child as a symbol of immortality. The more parents were deprived or abused during their formative years, the greater the impairment of their parental functions. The nuclear family is not inherently detrimental to human mental health, but it has evolved into a destructive institution. Only by dealing with the issues that make families dysfunctional can family life be made more supportive and constructive for children.
Firestone, R. W. (1995). Invisible Child Abuse [video]. Santa Barbara, CA: The Glendon Association.
Invisible Child Abuse is a 57-minute video documentary that explores the often neglected but most pervasive form of child abuse: emotional mistreatment. It includes personal testimonials from group therapy sessions with Dr. Firestone that examine the life-long effects of subtly damaging yet socially acceptable child care and parenting practices. Damaging parental behaviors examined include conflicting attitude about sex, suffocating emotional involvement, parental discord, lack of affection, and overprotectiveness. The subtle damage inflicted when parents do not understand emotional needs of children result in loss of human potential and real harm to children's psyches.
Fortin, A., & Chamberland, C. (1995). Preventing the psychological maltreatment of children. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 10(3), 275-295.
Psychological violence and other forms of psychological abuse constitute the most frequent type of child maltreatment within the family setting. To effectively prevent psychological maltreatment, answers to four questions must be provided: First, what is the nature and scope of the problem? Second, toward whom should intervention be directed? Third, in what situations or milieus is the problem most likely to be observed? Finally, which preventive strategies are most effective? This article addresses these questions and identifies both the challenges and resources available for intervention, primarily by focusing on the risk and protection factors associated with the psychological maltreatment of children.
Forward, S. (1989). Toxic Parents: Overcoming Their Hurtful Legacy and Reclaiming Your Life. New York: Bantam Books.
Drawing on years of experience as a therapist, the author explains the nature of "toxic parenting" and its manifestations in the lives of its victims. Dr. Forward identifies several types of toxic parents (inadequate parents, controllers, alcoholics, verbal abusers, physical abusers, and sexual abusers) and describes the types of behavior by which they are identified. She uses many case histories to illustrate behavior and emotions associated with adult victims of toxic parenting. Dr. Forward also gives advice on how adult victims can deal with past and continuing mistreatment at the hands of their toxic parents. The book includes questionnaires and personal inventories designed to guide the lay reader through the process of discovery and healing.
Garbarino, J. (1980). Defining emotional maltreatment: The message is the meaning. Journal of Psychiatric Treatment and Evaluation, 2, 105-110.
This paper seeks to make some progress in solving the knotty problem of defining emotional maltreatment. It considers both theoretical and practical issues in light of the available evidence. The organizing theme of this discussion is that the fundamental threat posed by child maltreatment in all its forms is to the development of competence. Conceived of in this way, emotional maltreatment becomes the fulcrum necessary to move forward in understanding and dealing with the overall problem of child abuse and neglect.
Garbarino, J., & Garbarino, A. C. (1980). Emotional Maltreatment of Children (pp. 31). South Deerfield, MA: National Committee to Prevent Child Abuse.
Garbarino, J., & Garbarino, A. C. (1985). Emotional maltreatment of children: National Committee for Prevention of Child Abuse.
Garbarino, J., & Merrow, J. (1985). Psychological maltreatment of children: Assault on the psyche [video]. University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University.
"Dummy!" "You don't think!" "I wish you were never born." "I want these two to disappear." Words like these can hurt, and they can leave psychological scars on a child just as much as physical abuse. Psychological Maltreatment of Children is a dramatized portrayal of the emotional effects parental verbal abuse can have on children. This living-room vignette reveals the inner struggles of the parents that give rise to the verbal abuse of their son and daughter, and shows the disturbing consequences the situation has on both the parents and the children.
Garbarino, J., Guttman, E., & Seeley, J. W. (1986). The Psychologically Battered Child: Strategies for Identification, Assessment, and Intervention. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Garbarino, J. (1987). What can the school do on behalf of the psychologically maltreated child and the community. School Psychology Review, 16(2), 181-187.
Schools can play an important role in preventing psychological maltreatment of children in the home and community. They can monitor the mental health of students, provide a psychologically positive climate, and act as therapeutic and rehabilitative agents. School-based programming for prevention and intervention is illustrated using case studies.
Garbarino, J. (1991). Not all bad developmental outcomes are the result of child abuse. Development and Psychopathology, 3(1), 45-50.
Comments on R. A. McGee and D. A. Wolfe's (see PA, Vol 79:1837) definition of child psychological maltreatment (PMT) and its significance for child development. The present author examines PMT vis-a-vis child physical abuse (PAB) and sexual abuse (SAB) from the perspective of the violation of a minimal standard of care, suggesting that the role of PMT in PAB and SAB has not been addressed. One clinically relevant hypothesis in need of investigation is the notion that it is the coupling of PMT with PAB or SAB that produces the greatest developmental impairment. PMT stands somewhere between the "pure form" of SAB and the "risk assessment" characteristic of PAB. McGee and Wolfe's definition of PMT as parent to child communications that may potentially damage the child psychologically does not advance the cause of understanding PMT.
Garbarino, J. (1993). Psychological child maltreatment: A developmental view. Family Violence and Abusive Relationships, 20(2), 307-315.Ê
Psychological maltreatment is a concerted attack on the development of self and social competence, and is a core issue in all types of child abuse and neglect. Five categories of psychological maltreatment can be identified: rejecting, isolating, terrorizing, ignoring, and corrupting. Each of these types takes a distinct form in light of the developmental level of the child. In considering the potential harm of psychological maltreatment, it is important to understand the effects of accumulated risk and a child's social context.
Garrison, E. G. (1987). Psychological maltreatment: An emerging focus for inquiry and concern. American Psychologist, 42(2), 157-9.
Comments on R. A. McGee and D. A. Wolfe's (see PA, Vol 79:1837) definition of child psychological maltreatment (PMT) and its significance for child development. The present AUTHOR examines PMT vis-a-vis child physical abuse (PAB) and sexual abuse (SAB) from the perspective of the violation of a minimal standard of care, suggesting that the role of PMT in PAB and SAB has not been addressed. One clinically relevant hypothesis in need of investigation is the notion that it is the coupling of PMT with PAB or SAB that produces the greatest developmental impairment. PMT stands somewhere between the "pure form" of SAB and the "risk assessment" characteristic of PAB. McGee and Wolfe's definition of PMT as parent to child communications that may potentially damage the child psychologically does not advance the cause of understanding PMT.
Germain, R.B., Brassard, M.R., & Hart, S.N. (1985). Crisis intervention for maltreated children. School Psychology Review; 14(3) 291-299.
Discusses crisis intervention for maltreated children (victims of physical, sexual, or psychological abuse and neglect) in terms of theories regarding the origin of maltreatment, the incidence of psychological maltreatment, primary prevention activities, working with clients at risk, and intervention with abusers. Three perspectives on the origins of maltreatment are discussed: factors within the individual, the family, and the society and culture. It is argued that while less than 1% of a student population may be involved with reported cases of maltreatment in any given year, the actual incidence is much greater. Any efforts to prevent maltreatment will be limited until there are substantial sociocultural changes. To reduce the likelihood of the occurrence of maltreatment, parents and other caregivers can be given training in self-understanding and interpersonal skills, as well as help to reduce life stresses. The interventions for children that are discussed are designed to limit the damage of maltreatment and are implemented both prior to and after the occurrence of the experience. Legal interventions and strategies for individual and group counseling are also discussed. It is concluded that school psychologists can play important roles in working with parents, and the school can play an important role in safeguarding the welfare of its students and families.
Gilmartin, B. G. (1985). Some family antecedents of severe shyness. Family Relations: Journal of Applied Family and Child Studies, 34(3), 429-438.
Love-shyness is a degree of inhibition and reticence vis-a-vis the opposite sex that is sufficiently severe as to obviate any participation in courtship, marriage, and family formation roles. 100 35-50 yr old and 200 19-24 love-shy men were compared with 200 19-24 yr old nonshy men on family background variables. The love-shys were about 5 times as likely as the nonshys to have grown up without having any female siblings. They also tended to have grown up in homes that were isolated from any kin family network. Besides not receiving much emotional support from kin, the shys tended to have been social isolates as far as age-mate peers were concerned and more than 3 times as likely as the nonshys to have grown up as only children. Disharmony and verbal abuse had been commonplace components of the love-shys' family atmosphere.
Giovannoni, J. (1991). Social policy considerations in defining psychological maltreatment. Development and Psychopathology, 3(1), 51-59.
Examines social policy considerations in the context of R. A. McGee and D. A. Wolfe's (see PA, Vol 79:1837) proposed conceptual and operational definitions of child psychological maltreatment (PMT), which are suitable for research purposes. From a social policy perspective, the present author defines child maltreatment as parental or responsible caretaker treatment of children that warrants (1) intrusion into family privacy and autonomy and (2) the expenditure of societal resources to ameliorate it. Discussion includes the evolution of statutory definitions of maltreatment, continuing controversy over the appropriate standards of court intervention, and the impact of resource restriction on changing definitional thresholds.
Gracia, E. (1995). Visible but unreported: A case for the "not serious enough"cases of child maltreatment. Child Abuse and Neglect; 19(9) 1083-1093.
Examined the psychosocial characteristics of 48 cases of child physical abuse, 13 cases of neglect, and 8 cases of psychological maltreatment labeled as "not serious enough" (NSE) at the ecological levels of individual, family, and social. Results indicate a poor personal and social adjustment of the children in the maltreatment groups, and suggest that the definition of cases of maltreatment as NSE does not represent the psychological reality of these children. The most important variables for discriminating between all maltreatment groups and the nonabuse group were parents' and children's perceptions of parental behavior, children's behavioral problems and personal adjustment, parents' integration and satisfaction in the community, and the importance and direction of personal growth emphasizedin the family.
Graham-Bermann, S. (1992, ). Sibling abuse: Prevalence, emotional, and social outcomes. Paper presented at the 100th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, Washington, D.C.
Gross, A. B., & Keller, H. R. (1992). Long-term consequences of childhood physical and psychological maltreatment. Aggressive Behavior, 18(3), 171-185.
Assessed whether some of the correlates of learned helplessness (depression, low self-esteem, and a maladaptive attributional style) are long-term consequences of child abuse. Based on responses to a child abuse questionnaire, 228 undergraduates were identified as physically abused, psychologically abused, both physically and psychologically abused, or nonabused. Ss also completed measures assessing present attributional style, level of depression, and level of self-esteem. Analyses of variance (ANOVAs) indicated (1) a greater tendency toward depression in Ss reporting both types of abuse than in all other Ss and (2) lower self-esteem in Ss reporting psychological abuse only or both psychological and physical abuse. Abused Ss did not seem to exhibit a more maladaptive attributional style than that of nonabused Ss.
Hart, S., & Brassard, M. R. (1987). A major threat to children's mental health: Psychological maltreatment. American Psychologist, 42(2), 160-165.
Psychological maltreatment appears to be more prevalent and potentially more destructive than other forms of child abuse and neglect. However, it receives little attention from the public or professional sector. This article reviews the literature and concludes that psychological maltreatment is the core issue in child maltreatment.
Hart, S. N. (1987). Psychological maltreatment in schooling. School Psychology Review, 16(2), 169-180.
Five conditions of psychological maltreatment of children can occur in schooling: discipline through fear; low quality human interaction; limited opportunities to develop competency and self- worth; encouragement to be dependent; and denial of opportunities for healthy risk-taking. Issues associated with these conditions and methods for overcoming them are presented.
Hart, S. N., & Brassard, M. R. (1991). Psychological maltreatment: Progress achieved. Development and Psychopathology, 3(1), 61-70.
Argues that R. A. McGee and D. A. Wolfe (see PA, Vol 79:1837) raise important issues on child psychological maltreatment (PMT). However, the present authors cite evidence from various studies to substantiate their disagreement with McGee and Wolfe's conclusion that attempts to define PMT have had limited success. The present authors have empirically identified 5 subtypes of PMT (spurning, terrorizing, isolating, exploiting/corrupting, and denying emotional responsiveness). Contrary to McGee and Wolfe's view, they propose that psychological and physical conditions of PMT interact and are frequently interdependent; therefore, a dualistic approach of separating both oversimplifies the topic and denies reality. They challenge McGee and Wolfe's position on issues such as definition of PMT, measuring outcomes of PMT (physical or nonphysical), characterizing subtypes of PMT, and implications of PMT for developmental psychopathology.
Hart, S. N., & Brassard, M. R. (1991). Developing and validating operationally defined measures of emotional maltreatment (Final Report 90CA1216): NCCAN.
Emotional maltreatment may be the most destructive form of child maltreatment other than physical injury leading to death, yet it is poorly understood and lacks sufficient definition for investigative and legal purposes. This research report describes an NCCAN funded project that (a) operationally defined five subtypes of emotional maltreatment (i.e. spurning, exploiting/corrupting, isolating, and denying emotional responsiveness) that could be clearly differentiated from one another and appropriate parenting through scaling procedures; (b) developed two measures of emotional maltreatment based on the operational definitions; (c) validated one of the measures, the Psychological Maltreament Rating Scales, by using them to assess caretaker behavior in a sample of 37 emotionally and physically maltreating mothers and 36 demographically matched controls and by demonstrating the relationship of the measures to maltreatment status and child competence; and (d) evaluated the potential for use of the measures in legal proceedings by having them reviewed by Howard Davidson, Director of the Child Advocacy Unit of the American Bar Association.
Haugaard, J. J. (1991). Defining psychological maltreatment: A prelude to research or an outcome of research. Development and Psychopathology, 3(1), 71-77.
Commends R. A. McGee and D. A. Wolfe (see PA, Vol 79:1837) for their efforts to define child psychological maltreatment (PMT) and for noting the definitional problems that ensue when the interconnectedness between physical and PMT is not addressed. The present author disagrees with their conclusion that one research definition of PMT should be developed, and also with their view concerning the most appropriate method for defining PMT. He argues that several definitions relevant to different research audiences may be more useful than one broad-based definition. He suggests that PMT should be considered harmful (vs improper) behavior. The timing of the definition of PMT either requires that it is defined prior to research or that the definition evolves as a result of research. It is proposed that defining PMT should be delayed until researchers understand which parent-child interactions result in psychological harm.
Hegar, R. L., & Yungman, J. J. (1989). Toward a causal typology of child neglect. Children and Youth Services Review, 11(3), 203-220.
This article represents part of the authors' ongoing review of research concerning the whole range of child maltreatment, including physical abuse, neglect, and sexual abuse. The typology presented in this article includes the following categories: physical neglect; developmental neglect; and emotional neglect, which is divided into a general type and nonorganic failure to thrive. Within this typology, the authors examine the research literature to discover relationships between each type of neglect and etiological factors, including: stressors; cultural patterns or beliefs; lack of skills or supports; problems in family roles or relationships; and personality characteristics of parents and adult caretakers.
Heinz, H. R., & Heinz, S. A. (1993). Emotional incest: The tragedy of divorcing families. American Journal of Family Law, 7(4), 169-174.
The authors use the term emotional incest to describe a situation in which parents use their children to meet their own emotional needs. They assert that this situation develops frequently in divorce and custody situations. Examples are given of emotionally incestuous tactics, such as use of derogatory names (drunk, slut), blame, sarcasm, and deceit. The authors recommend increased attention to this matter, to formulate creative solutions to this problem. This article also includes a composite fictional case-study, excerpted from a book in progress. This excerpt describes the case of Jeffrey, who is emotionally alienated from his father by his mother. After years of traumatic manipulation, Jeffrey was frightened of his father's visitations, experienced frequent physical illness, and was socially and cognitively immature.
Hickox, A., & Furnell, J. R. G. (1989). Psychosocial and background factors in emotional abuse of children. Childcare, Health, and Development, 15(4), 227-240.
Seven parents legally established as emotionally abusing their children were compared with a closely matched control group of seven "problem" parents in a day nursery. The experimental group parents showed significantly more psychosocial and background factors associated with undifferentiated abuse or physical abuse and neglect; specifically, these factors included poor coping skills, difficulty in building relationships, and poor child management techniques. In addition, the emotionally abusing parents reported a significantly higher incidence of behavioral deviancy in their children than the control caregivers. Perceived stress and lack of support also appeared critical in differentiating the two groups. The results suggest that a background of emotional abuse or deprivation may predispose an adult to have inadequate or absent coping strategies to handle difficult child behavior, resulting in a negative parent-child interaction and failure to make use of outside support.
Holm, M. F. (1986). Shall the Circle Be Unbroken?: Helping the Emotionally Maltreated Child. Longmont, CO: Bookmakers Guild, Inc.
Holm offers a sensitive, in-depth study of the emotional maltreatment of children that underlies abuse and neglect. the painful conflicts that emotional abuse leaves with the child-"the inability to trust, love, and act in competent ways- shape the personality in a way that spirals unmercifully into the next generation." Holm addresses the causes and cycles of abuse and examines how abused children cope with their troubles.
Hyman, I. A. (1987). Psychological correlates of corporal punishment. In M. R. Brassard, R. Germain, & S. N. Hart (Eds.), Psychological Maltreatment of Children and Youth, (pp. 59-68). New York: Pergamon.
Corporal punishment in homes and in schools is a socially sanctioned form of child abuse with psychological consequences for its victims. The use of corporal punishment is related to variables such as school achievement, sex, race, and class, and its use can be traced to historical beliefs about the nature of children. Respect for the civil rights of children-and an end to corporal punishment in schools and homes- can only be accomplished in accordance with changes in American society, economy, and fundamental beliefs about child-rearing.
Hoglund, C. & Nicholas, K. (1995). Shame, guilt, and anger in college students exposed to abusive family environments. Journal of Family Violence;, 10(2) 141-157
Examined the relationship between an abusive environment within the family and proneness to shame, guilt, anger, and hostility in 107 male and 101 female undergraduates. Ss completed the Test of Self-Conscious Affect, the State-Trait Anger Scale, the Anger Expression Scale, the Buss-Durkee Hostility Inventory, and the Parental Abuse and Support Inventory. Greater exposure to emotional abusiveness was significantly related to higher shame, overt and covert hostility, and expressed and unexpressed anger. Greater exposure to physical abusiveness was significantly related to overt hostility and a tendency to experience anger without a specific provoking situation. Women reported higher shame and guilt, whereas men reported higher levels of overt hostility and expressed anger. Shame proneness was related to covert hostility and unexpressed anger for both men and women.
Hyman, I. A. (1990). Reading, Writing, and the Hickory Stick: The Appalling Story of Physical and Psychological Abuse in American Schools. Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath and Company.
Dr. Hyman examines the types of physical and psychological abuse used by teachers and administrators in the name of discipline. Using research, published reports, and court testimony, he discusses the circumstances that allow abuse to occur as well as the PTSD symptomology associated with these types of abuse. Strategies for parents, teachers, and administrators are given to assist in preventing abuse and taking action in the event of abuse.
Iwaniec, D. (1997). Evaluating parent training for emotionally abusive and neglectful parents: Comparing individual versus individual and group intervention. Research-on-Social-Work-Practice;; 7(3), 329-349
The principles and methods of parent training provided by social workers are described with an emphasis on working with abusive and neglectful parents using cognitive and/or behavioral approaches. Two emotionally abusive and neglectful groups of parents ( n = 10 parents per group; aged 16-38 yrs) were assessed, trained, and followed up for 2 years. Group 1 received individual parent training only and Group 2 received similar individual parent training plus 10 sessions of parent training provided in groups. Group 2 improved significantly better in areas other than child care. The results are discussed in terms of their applications to the provision of parent training by social workers.
Jantz, G. L. (1995). Healing the Scars of Emotional Abuse. Grand Rapids, MI: Fleming H. Revell.
Written from the perspective of an experienced therapist, this book addresses the pervasive problem of emotional abuse. Jantz helps the reader to understand emotional abuse through case studies from his practice. He explains that emotional abuse can occur through words, actions, and indifference, and notes that the abusers primary objective is to control. He acknowledges the harmful effects of emotional abuse, including low self-esteem, lack of self-confidence, transfer of needs, perfectionism, inappropriate relationships, and "failure syndrome". For readers who are victims of emotional abuse, Jantz offers a hopeful, spiritual message, as well as guidelines for reflection and recovery.
Jones, E. D., & McCurdy, K. (1992). The links between types of maltreatment and demographic characteristics of children. Child Abuse and Neglect, 16, 201-215.
This paper examines the relative impact of demographic characteristics of the child, family structure, and economic variables on types of child abuse and neglect. The current analysis is based on data from the second National Incidence Study of Child Abuse and Neglect (NIS-2), which collected information from both CPS and non-CPS agencies (e.g. schools, hospitals) in a national sample of 29 counties (Westat,1988). The NIS-2 offers a unique opportunity to examine abuse and neglect issues with a large, national data set. This paper looks at a series of exploratory logistic regression models to distinguish between four different types of maltreatment: (a) physical abuse, (b) sexual abuse, (c) emotional maltreatment, and (d) physical neglect. Our findings show that physical neglect, in comparison with other types of abuse is the most predictable and distinguishable. It is most clearly related to economic factors such as low income and Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) status, regardless of race. Additionally, both sexual abuse and physical neglect occur at younger ages than previously shown. The policy implications for these findings are discussed.
Klosinski, G. (1993). Psychological maltreatment in the context of divorce. Child Abuse and Neglect, 17(4), 557-563.
Reviewing the common behavioral patterns that children of divorcing parents resort to and the roles that they tend to take, a distinction is made between those instances of stress that can be regarded as acceptable and those that must be considered harmful. The following behavior patterns are discussed: (1) the inclination of the child to sacrifice him/herself for the sake of the parents, (2) the tendency of children to reach agreements among themselves about how they should be divided up, (3) the phenomenon of parentization in which the child assumes the role of the substitute partner for a parent, and (4) the child's discovery of both power and helplessness with respect to the situation and the feelings of guilt awakened by this discovery.
Kreisman, J. J., & Straus, H. (1989). I Hate You - Don't Leave Me. Los Angeles: Price Stern Sloan, Inc.
Lesnik-Oberstein, M., Koers, A. J., & Cohen, L. (1995). Parental hostility and its sources in psychologically abusive mothers: A test of the three factor theory. Child Abuse and Neglect, 19(1), 33-49.
A revised version of the three-factor theory of child abuse (Lesnik-Oberstein, Cohen, & Koers, 1982) is presented. Further, we report on a research designed to test three main hypotheses derived from Factor I : (1) (a high level of hostility in abusive parents) and its sources. The three main hypotheses are: (1) that psychologically abusive mothers have a high level of hostile feelings (Factor I); (2) that the high level of hostile feelings in abusive mothers is associated with low marital coping skills (resulting in affectionless, violent marriages), a negative childhood upbringing (punitive, uncaring, over controlling), a high level of stress (objective stress), and a high level of strain (low self-esteem, depression, neurotic symptoms, social anxiety, feelings of being wronged); and (3) that maternal psychological abuse is associated with low marital coping skills, a negative childhood upbringing, a high level of stress and a high level of strain. Forty-four psychologically abusing mothers were compared with 128 nonabusing mothers on a variety of measures and were matched for age and educational level. All the mothers had children who were hospitalized for medical symptoms. Three hypotheses were supported, with the exception of the component of hypothesis 2 concerning the association between objective stress and maternal hostility. The positive results are consistent with the three-factor theory.
Martinez-Roig, A., Domingo-Salvany, F., Llorens-Terol, J., & Ibanez-Cacho, J. M. (1983). Psychologic implications of the maltreated child syndrome. Child Abuse and Neglect, 7(3), 261-263.
This article, presented at the Fourth International Congress on Child Abuse and Neglect in Paris, France, in September 1982, describes a retrospective investigation of 97 psychologically maltreated children (aged 18 mo to 14 yrs). Results show a clear relationship between clinical symptoms and the intensity of the abuse. Parental neglect resulted in impairment of intellectual and locomotor development and emotional and behavioral disorders. Neurotic manifestations of a regressive type appeared in nearly half the preadolescents who suffered severe psychological abuse. Ss under 6 yrs of age presented functional symptoms, including regression in toilet training and sleep disorders secondary to inadequate mothering.
May, J. G., & Toll, M. (1985). How to deal with stress, (pp. 15). South Deerfield, MA: NCPCA.
McCarthy, J. B. (1990). Abusive families and character formation. American Journal of Psychoanalysis, 50(2), 181-186.
Describes abusive parents as undifferentiated partners who compete with each other and with their children for attention and nurturance. They make demands on children to counteract their own injured narcissism, with the use of devaluation and projective identification. The emotional atmosphere in such families facilitates ego deficits like those of the borderline personality as it molds the child's efforts to avoid anxiety. Devaluation, loss, and defenses against mourning partially account for depression and paranoid traits in abused children. The destructiveness of psychological abuse lies in the constriction of the experiencing self and healthy character development, together with the conditioning to repeat abusive relationships and to avoid intimacy.
McGee, R. A., & Wolfe, D. A. (1991). Psychological maltreatment: Toward an operational definition. Development and Psychopathology, 3(1), 3-18.
Reviews the current definitions of psychological maltreatment (PMT), proposes a theoretical clarification of the concept, and describes its relevance for the field of developmental psychopathology. PMT is conceptualized as the interaction between maltreating parent behaviors and the special vulnerabilities of a child, particularly his or her developmental level. The definition of PMT is restricted to verbal and nonverbal parent communication (e.g., rejecting, degrading, terrorizing, isolating, missocializing, exploiting, denying emotional responsiveness as proposed by S. N. Hart et al (1987)). Parental acts that involve physical or sexual contact are excluded. This effort strives to minimize the redundancy with the definitions of other forms of maltreatment and to facilitate research into the effects of all forms of victimization.
McGee, R. A., & Wolfe, D. A. (1991). Between a rock and a hard place: Where do we go from here in defining psychological maltreatment? Development and Psychopathology, 3(1), 119-124.
Responds to 13 comments on the present authors' (see PA, Vol 79:1837) article on child psychological maltreatment (PMT). Special reference is made to D. Barnett et al; J. Belsky; J. Garbarino; J. Giovannoni; J. J. Haugaard; and M. S. Wald (see PA, Vol 79:1805; 1806; 1819; 1821; 1825; 1860, respectively). The present authors address 2 common themes that emerge: The 1st concerns the role of research on PMT in the social policy process; the 2nd deals with assumptions regarding measurement. They describe their own research efforts to illustrate how they are dealing with problems inherent in their definition, and discuss the research paradigm for which the issue of PMT should be studied.
McGee, R.A., Wolfe, D.A., & Wilson, S.K., (1997). Multiple maltreatment experiences and adolescent behavior problems: Adolescents' perspectives. Development and Psychopathology; 9(1) 131-149.
Examined adolescents' perceptions of their maltreatment experiences and scrutinized the combined and unique contribution of 5 maltreatment types (i.e., physical abuse, sexual abuse, psychological abuse, neglect, and exposure to family violence) to variance in adolescent adjustment. It was predicted that these maltreatment types would account for significant variance in adjustment when controlling for the context variables of age, sex, SES, IQ, and stressful life events. 160 adolescents (aged 11-17 yrs) were randomly selected from the open caseload of a child protection service (CPS). Ss completed global severity ratings regarding their experiences of the 5 types of maltreatment, as well as a battery of measures assessing self- and caretaker-reported externalizing and internalizing symptomatology. The Ss' maltreatment ratings significantly predicted self-reported adjustment, even when controlling for all context variables. Psychological maltreatment was the most predictively potent maltreatment type, and enhanced the predictive utility of other maltreatment types. Significant sex differences in the sequelae of perceived maltreatment were evident. Also, interactions between Ss'ratings and those obtained from CPS files were detected.
Melton, G. B., & Davidson, H. A. (1987). Child protection and society: When should the state intervene? American Psychologist, 42(2), 172-175.
The concept of psychological maltreatment may be too imprecise for use as a basis for involuntary intervention in families. At a minimum, before a state invokes jurisdiction over a family on the ground of psychological maltreatment alone, it should require a finding of an actual or reasonably foreseeable injury that is likely to result in protracted difficulties for the child if untreated. Psychological maltreatment is a more useful concept for regulation of institutions caring for children. Institutions and their staff should be barred from "treatments" designed to humiliate, depersonalize, deprive of outside communication, isolate, or otherwise subject youth to significantly greater intrusion on privacy than expectable in family life.
Melton, G. B., & Corson, J. (1987). Psychological maltreatment and the schools: Problems of law and professional responsibility. School Psychology Review, 16(2), 188-194.
Because a state must provide personal security for children in its care, possible false positive errors in identifying maltreatment are less grievous in schools and other institutions than in families. States have a legal duty to prevent intrusions upon privacy that may damage self-esteem. School psychologists have to prevent such intrusions.
Melzac, S. (1992). The secret life of children who have experienced emotional abuse. In V. P. Varma (Ed.), The Secret Life of Vulnerable Children, (pp. 75-100). New York: Routledge, Chapman and Hall Inc.
This chapter examines the consequences of emotional abuse. Emotional abuse is defined as an inability of parents or other adults or caretakers of children to effectively meet and satisfy the emotional and developmental needs of a child. The ways in which society and the legal system deal with emotional abuse are discussed, and a case study is presented that describes the experiences of a girl initially referred for assessment at age 8. The discussion covers the child's history and treatment after being taken into care, the role of child protection and social services, and the impact of her experiences on development.
Miller, A. (1981). Prisoners of Childhood. New York: Basic Books.
Miller, A. (1983). For Your Own Good (Hildegarde Hannum Hunter Hannum, Trans.). New York: Farrar, Straus, Giroux.
Miller examines what she calls "poisonous pedagogy", which includes all manners of abusive parenting justified on the grounds of moral education. She includes several excerpts from Katharina Rutschky's Schwarze Padagogik (Black Pedagogy) , published in 1977, which gives accounts of child-rearing techniques from historical texts. After extensive examination of the methods and justifications for abusive parenting, Miller discusses the lives of three victims of poisonous pedagogy- a suicidal drug-abuser, Adolf Hitler, and a child murderer.
Miller, A. (1986). Thou Shalt Not Be Aware. New York: Meridian.
NCCAN. (1994). Emotional Maltreatment (annotated bibliography 07-94111): National Clearinghouse on Child Abuse and Neglect Information.
This document contains articles relevant to emotional maltreatment, as well as psychological issues in other forms of abuse (primarily sexual abuse).
Neese, L. A. (1989). Psychological maltreatment in schools: Emerging issues for counselors. Elementary School Guidance and Counseling, 23(3), 194-200.
Defines psychological maltreatment of children. Discusses the damage done to children as a result of abusive behavior encountered at the school. Examines situations in which either peers or educators are perpetrators. Discusses the ethical implications for counselors.
Nesbit, W. C., & Karagianis, L. D. (1987). Psychological abuse in the home and in the school. Canadian Journal of Education, 12(1), 177-183.
This article reviews the research findings which have established relations between television viewing and the subsequent attitudes and behaviors of viewers, emphasizing the influence of televised violence. It identifies the implications and remedies for public policy, for society, and for the parents and educators responsible for children's daily experiences.
Nesbit, W. C. (1991). Emotional abuse: Vulnerability and developmental delay. Developmental Disabilities Bulletin, 19(2), 66-80.
Children with special needs have an increased vulnerability from birth to both physical and emotional mistreatment. Such children carry their vulnerability with them to school and it remains with them throughout their school years. Key factors related to the likelihood of psychological abuse within the educational context include the type of disability, the child's age, and facets of the integration process. A Psychological Abuse Scale for Teachers (PAST) has been developed to help teachers recognize abusive elements in their classroom interactions.
Ney, P., G., Moore, C., McPhee, J., & Trought, P. (1986). Child abuse: A study of the child's perspective. Child Abuse and Neglect, 10, 511-518.
This study ascertained the child's response to various types of abuse and neglect. With interviews and questionnaires for the staff of a child psychiatric unit, the mothers and the children involved, we assessed the severity, frequency, and duration of physical abuse, verbal abuse, physical neglect, emotional neglect or sexual abuse of children. The physically abused children accepted blame for mild but not severe mistreatment. Verbally and sexually abused children did not believe it was their fault if the mistreatment was moderately extensive, but did if it was mild or severe. The relationship between extent of abuse and blame was less clear for neglect, but children usually thought it was their fault. Verbal and sexual abuse appeared to have a greater impact on the children's perception of themselves and the world. Verbally abused children were more angry and more pessimistic about their future. Although physical abuse appeared to make some children feel they were unwanted at birth, how much the mother wanted her children was not related to the extent of any type of abuse. Both the type and extent of mistreatment appear to have different effects on the child's subjective experience. The use of the visual analog scale in this study make it possible to differentiate a continuum of severity and frequency of five types of mistreatment without the need for definition.
Ney, P. G. (1987). Does verbal abuse leave deeper scars: A study of children and parents. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 32(5), 371-378.
A study of the effects of verbal abuse on children and their abused parents supports the clinical impression that verbal abuse may have a greater impact for a longer period of time. Ss included 32 parents and children who called a child help-line, 45 children hospitalized on a psychiatric unit, and 57 mothers who had delivered healthy children at home or in the hospital. Results suggest that although there are few pure forms of verbal abuse, some parents who use verbal abuse would not hit their children, neglect them, or involve them in sex. Verbal abuse may become an increasingly frequent form of controlling and disciplining children because of the increased awareness of physical abuse and because of the possible declining value of children. Verbal abuse may have a greater impact because the abused child has greater difficulty defending him- or herself from the attack. (French abstract)
Ney, P. G., Fung, T., & Wickett, A. R. (1993). Child neglect: The precursor to child abuse. Pre- and Peri-Natal Psychology Journal, 8(2), 95-112.
Gathered information from 167 children (aged 11-18 yrs) and 213 adults on their experiences of physical abuse, physical neglect, verbal abuse, emotional neglect, and sexual abuse. When neglect preceded abuse in children who experienced both, the negative impact on the child's outlook was magnified. Neglect increased a child's susceptibility and vulnerability to abuse. The data indicate that neglect had a greater impact than abuse on a child's self-perception and future outlook. Being mistreated as a child and being mistreated by a spouse correlated highly with a parent's tendency to mistreat, particularly with physical and emotional neglect.
Ney, P. G., Fung, T., & Wickett, A. R. (1994). The worst combinations of abuse and neglect. Child Abuse and Neglect, 18(9), 705-714.
Studied impact of abuse and neglect on the child's perception of self and future. Data were gathered from 167 children who were followed from 7 to 18 yrs of age. When considering physical abuse, physical neglect, verbal abuse, emotional neglect, and sexual abuse, it was found that any type of neglect or abuse occurred singly in less than 5% of the Ss. A combination of physical neglect, physical abuse, and verbal abuse had the greatest impact, affecting such things as Ss' enjoyment of living and hopes for the future. Sexual abuse was the least frequent type of abuse. An early age of onset for verbal abuse and emotional neglect was significantly associated with greater severity and frequency of mistreatment. Neglect appears to be a precursor to abuse in many cases.
O'Hagan, K. (1993). Emotional and Psychological Abuse of Children. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
This short book is a comprehensive, clear summary of emotional and psychological maltreatment, useful for the child abuse investigator. Written in light of the Children Act of 1989 in Great Britain, the book defines emotional and psychological abuse (distinctly) in terms of the Act's provision regarding "significant harm". Case studies are presented, and abuser and victim characteristics are examined. Finally, recommendations are given for investigators of this type of case.
O'Hagan, K. P. (1995). Emotional and psychological abuse: Problems of definition. Child Abuse and Neglect, 19(4), 449-461.
Defining "emotional abuse" and "psychological abuse" is a task made difficult by uncertainty as to whether or not such terms are synonymous and/or interchangeable. There is an increasing tendency in child protection literature to regard them as synonymous, or at least, to make little distinction between them. The purpose of this paper is to explore the origins of this tendency, and to provide an alternative view, namely, that the terms are not synonymous, and there should be different definitions for each. Existing commonly used definitions are reviewed. The definitions that this paper provides stem from important concepts in emotional and psychological development.
O'Neill, P. (1991). A systems approach to ethical problems. Ethics and Behavior, 1(2), 129-143.
Codes of professional ethics and cases designed to teach ethical decision making are written for individual professionals and ignore the systems level of analysis. They typically employ a lineal view of causality and overvalue placement of blame as a component of ethical problem solving. This article takes a systems approach to ethical decision making. Psychological abuse of children is used as an example of a problem requiring a coordinated, systemic response to ethical issues such as autonomy, privacy, and confidentiality.
Oates, R. K. (1994). Cool Down Before Things Heat Up, (pp. 13). South Deerfield, MA: National Committee to Prevent Child Abuse.
Oregon State DHR, C. s. S. D. (1989). Mental Injury: The Hidden Hurt : Oregon State DHR, Children's Services Division.
This booklet describes mental injury as defined by Oregon law and discusses the identification and reporting of mental injury as required by state law. There are 2 conditions necessary to identify a mentally injured child: seriously impaired competence in social relationships and evidence that the parent or guardian treats the child in ways that violate common sense. The child's behavior is the primary evidence of mental injury. Procedures for reporting in Oregon and likely intervention steps are outlined.
Park, L. C., Imboden, J. B., Park, T. J., Hulse, S. H., & Unger, T. (1992). Giftedness and psychological abuse in borderline personality disorder: Their relevance to genesis and treatment. Journal of Personality Disorders, 6(3), 226-240.
A clinical study of 23 outpatients with borderline personality disorder (BPD) and 38 outpatients with other personality disorders (controls) revealed that 74% of the BPD Ss were rated as both gifted and psychologically (vs physically or sexually) abused, compared with only 13% of the controls. Data suggest that individuals who become borderline frequently are gifted with being unusually perceptive about the feelings of others. The interaction of a child's gifted characteristics with psychological abuse creates a tragic drama that is etiological for BPD. This abuse markedly perverts not only use of the perceptual talents (e.g., powerfully compelling projective identification), but overall psychological development.
Paulson, J. (1983). Covert and overt forms of maltreatment in the preschools. Child Abuse and Neglect, 7(1), 45-54.
The environment of 60 to 70 preschoolers and patterns of maltreatment are examined. Reviews prevailing attitudes toward children and staff members' covert forms of maltreatment such as overemphasis on academic skills, over-reliance on packaged materials, and dislike of particular children. Overt maltreatment is described (including emotional abuse and physical coercion).
Pillari, V. (1991). Scapegoating in Families: Intergenerational Patterns of Physical and Emotional Abuse. New York: Bruner/Mazel.
This book analyzes the abusive act of familial scapegoating. Scapegoating occurs when parent(s) attempt to channel or project marital and family problems onto one person in order to maintain family stability. In this type of familial situation, an emotionally weak child is recruited to bear the burden of all family difficulties. The scapegoated child is often victimized physically, sexually, and/or emotionally as he/she is the receptacle for anger and disharmony in the family. Characteristics of victims and abusers are given. In addition, therapeutic strategies for dealing with this family dynamic are offered.
Preston, G. (1986). The post-separation family and the emotional abuse of children: An ecological approach. Australian Journal of Sex, Marriage, and Family, 7(1), 40-49.
Discusses some of the difficulties in the present conceptualization of child abuse and their relevance for a theory of emotional abuse. An ecological model of emotional abuse is suggested. Children in separated families can be subjected to such abuse, particularly if there is disturbance in the structure of the postseparation family and if the parents are involved in extended litigation over the children. In some of these children, the problems are sufficiently severe and long-lasting to affect their personality development. A survey of 98 families who attended the Family Court for counseling is briefly reported, and it is concluded that a significant proportion of these families, in terms of the ecological model, constituted emotionally abusive situations for the children.
Ranney, E. C., & Cottone, R. R. (1991). Emotional abuse in the family: The need for awareness and treatment. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 13(4), 435-488.
Reviews research on the nature and effects of emotional abuse in the family and discusses the difficulties involved in identifying abusive relationships and prosecuting abusers due to the intangible nature of the evidence and the reluctance of the victims to come forward. Treatments deriving from family systems theory, such as family therapy, are viewed as showing the most promise, despite certain limitations, because they offer the opportunity to treat the abuser, the victim, and the relationship.
Remley, T. P. (1989). Reaction to psychological maltreatment in schools: Emerging issues for counselors. Elementary School Guidance and Counseling 23(3), 201-203.
Responds to Lynda Neese's "Psychological Maltreatment in Schools: Emerging Issues for Counselors." Discusses the legal system's lack of involvement in instances of psychological maltreatment and the implications for school counselors.
Rich, D.J., Gingerich,K.J. & Rosen, L.A. (1997). Childhood emotional abuse and associated psychopathology in college students. Journal-of-College-Student-Psychotherapy; 11(3), 13-28.
Examined general symptoms of psychopathology associated with childhood emotional abuse in a college student population. 254 college students (mean age 19.7 yrs) completed the Family Biography and Life Events Questionnaire. Ss' current psychological functioning was assessed using the Symptom Checklist 90-Revised. Results show that emotional abuse in childhood, even with no other type of abuse present, was significantly related to long-term negative consequences for these students. Survivors of childhood emotional abuse were significantly more depressed than Ss reporting no childhood abuse. Additionally, survivors reported significantly more general psychopathological symptoms than those who did not report childhood abuse experiences. The authors remind clinicians to be sensitive to the unique developmental situation of college students in treatment
Rohner, R. P. (1980). They Love Me. They Love Me Not. New Haven: HRAF.
Rohner, R. P. (1986). The Warmth Dimension: Foundations of Parental Acceptance-Rejection Theory. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.
This thought-provoking study is about love-the kind of love that parents can give or withhold from their children. The warmth dimension of parenting is characterized at one end by parental acceptance and at the other by parental rejection. This work examines the antecedents, consequences, and correlates of these phenomena in the United States and across many cultures. The problematic relationship between perceived parental rejection and child abuse and neglect is also discussed.
Ronnau, J., & Poertner, J. (1989). Building consensus among child protection professionals. Social Casework, 70(7), 428-435.
The authors report the results of a study that examined the extent to which judges, district and county attorneys, and social workers concurred in their perceptions of the severity and need for intervention in cases of emotional maltreatment of children. Workers should take a leadership role in building consensus.
Rorty, M., Yager, J., & Rossotto, E. (1994). Childhood sexual, physical, and psychological abuse and their relationship to comorbid psychopathology in bulimia nervosa. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 16(4), 317-334.
Examined the relationship between Axis I disorders, personality pathology, and a history of child abuse in 80 women with a lifetime history of bulimia nervosa (BN) and 40 healthy controls. Ss were given structured interviews and questionnaires concerning child abuse and eating disorders. At odds with prediction, child abuse in various forms was not associated with the presence of lifetime comorbid Axis I disorders in general or disorder classes in particular among BN Ss, although sexual, psychological, and multiple abuse were associated with the diagnosis of a higher total number of Axis I conditions. Results suggest that childhood abuse, especially physical and psychological abuse and the endurance of multiple forms of abuse, may increase a young woman's risk of developing a wide range of Axis I disorders and personality pathology, including but not limited to BN.
Rosenberg, M. S. (1987). New directions for research on the psychological maltreatment of children. American Psychologist, 42(2), 166-171.
Identifies several research directions for psychologists interested in studying the psychological maltreatment of children and youth. In order to organize research, two conceptual perspectives are suggested: ecological and developmental. Policy issues are also discussed.
Rossman, B. B., & Rosenberg, M. S. (1991, ). Current research and future directions on children in abusive families. Paper presented at the Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, San Francisco, CA.
Sanders, B., & Becker-Lausen, E. (1995). The measurement of psychological maltreatment: Early data on the child abuse and trauma scale. Child Abuse and Neglect, 19(3), 315-323.
This paper describes a self-report measure, the Child Abuse and Trauma Scale, which yields a quantitative index of the frequency and extent of various types of negative experiences in childhood and adolescence. Data on this measure are presented for two large samples of college students and for a small clinical sample of subjects with a diagnosis of Multiple Personality Disorder. The strong internal consistency and test-retest reliability of the scale in the college population is documented, and its validity is attested to by demonstrating that it correlates significantly with outcomes such as dissociation, depression, difficulties in interpersonal relationships, and victimization, all of which have previously been associated with childhood trauma or abuse. The extremely high scores of the Multiple Personality subjects confer additional validity to the measure. The authors suggest that the construct of psychological maltreatment underlies the destructive elements of numerous forms.
Seaberg, J. R. (1993). Emotional abuse: A study of interobserver reliability. Social Work Research and Abstracts, 29(3), 22-29.
Tested whether child welfare workers, given common information about a child-family situation, could agree on the presence or absence of emotional abuse. 12 child-family descriptive situations were developed and presented to 70 child care workers (aged 23-61 yrs). Ss categorized each situation as 1 of 7 types of child abuse or neglect. In the assessment of the results, the Ss' indication of the extent of abuse/neglect was compared with expected rankings based on the situation model and with rankings of experts in the child protective services field. Ss had little difficulty agreeing on the presence of emotional abuse. The most stringent agreement rates were 88.1% using the model as the standard and 83.3% using the experts as the standard. If a less stringent standard for the model is used, the agreement reaches 96.4%.
Shaver, P. R., Goodman, G. S., Rosenberg, M. S., & Orcutt, H. (1991). The search for a definition of psychological maltreatment. Development and Psychopathology, 3(1), 79-86.
Asserts that R. A. McGee and D. A. Wolfe's (see PA, Vol 79:1837) article represents a substantial effort to create an operational definition of child psychological maltreatment (PMT). The present authors place McGee and Wolfe's work in historical context, summarize their argument, and comment on the pros and cons of their ideas. It is noted that McGee and Wolfe conceptualize PMT in terms of the interaction of parental behavior and the special vulnerabilities of children (e.g., developmental level). However, by focusing on nonphysical parental behaviors and child outcomes, they end up with a narrow conception of PMT. The greatest conceptual advance in McGee and Wolfe's scheme is their simultaneous, interactive focus on perpetrator behavior and a particular child's vulnerabilities. This provides a link to the field of developmental psychopathology, which emphasizes age-related developmental tasks and vulnerabilities.
Shengold, L. (1989). Soul Murder. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Simonson, L. (1993). The Amazing Spider-Man on Emotional Abuse, (Vol. 1,). New York: Marvel Comics & National Committee to Prevent Child Abuse.
Sternberg, K. J., & Lamb, M. E. (1991). Can we ignore context in the definition of child maltreatment? Development and Psychopathology, 3(1), 87-92.
Appraises critically R. A. McGee and D. A. Wolfe's (see PA, Vol 79:1837) views concerning child psychological maltreatment (PMT), poses various questions about their definitions of PMT, and discusses methodological issues inherent in their definitions. The present authors argue that to formulate an operational definition of PMT, it is important to consider not only the immediate social context in which the event took place, but the broader cultural context as well. In implying that PMT and adequate parenting are distinct, mutually exclusive, and exhaustive categories, McGee and Wolfe not only lose statistical power but they currently lack knowledge of the correlates and consequences of PMT to make valid categorical distinctions. In sum, their definition of PMT creates ambiguity rather than clarity and appears to be of little value to researchers, jurists, policy makers, or practitioners.
Stivers, C. (1990). Promotion of self esteem in the prevention of suicide. Death Studies, 14(4), 303-327.
Defines self-esteem and discusses its importance in children's development. Depression as a result of low self-esteem and the relationship between psychological abuse and suicide are addressed. Techniques are listed for parents and teachers to foster positive self-concept in youth, and examples are provided of programs and curriculum that enhance self-esteem among youth. An appendix contains a self-concept teaching unit for 4th graders.
Strickland, E. V., & Campbell, K. C. (1982). End the other abuse: Damaged self concepts. Childhood Education, 59(1), 9-12.
Intended for teachers, principals, and other school workers, this article suggests steps to help end emotional abuse of children and the resultant damage to their self-concepts.
Sugar, M. (1990). Abuse and neglect in schools. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 44(4), 484-498.
Reviews maltreatment of students by teachers and of teachers by students using data from the health, psychiatric, medical, and education literature as well as clinical material. The effects of the abuse of teachers by students, parents, and the school administration are discussed. Cases illustrate teachers' emotional, physical, and sexual abuse of students. The consequences of abuse to students are described. Barriers to reporting and research and approaches to management are outlined.
Thompson, A.E., & Kaplan, C.A. (1996). Childhood emotional abuse. British Journal of Psychiatry; 168(2), 143-148.
Reviews the medical, psychological, social science, clinical, and legal literature about childhood emotional abuse (CEA), and gives an overview of childhood and adult sequelae. Definitions and proposed mechanisms of damage are discussed. Theoretical models of CEA and its consequences are derived from theories of childhood psychological development. Most definitions of CEA mention adverse parental behaviors occurring in a sustained pattern of interaction, which may damage the child's emotional and psychological functioning. Theories of the mechanism of damage are grouped into 5 categories: interference with attachment, psychological development, physical growth, cognitive processes, and protective factors. Proposals are made for clinical and medico-legal practice.
Thompson, R. A., & Jacobs, J. E. (1991). Defining psychological maltreatment: Research and policy perspectives. Development and Psychopathology, 3(1), 93- 102.
Suggests that R. A. McGee and D. A. Wolfe (see PA, Vol 79:1837) have undertaken a challenging task in defining child psychological maltreatment (PMT), but their proposed definition is too expansive and imprecise to serve as a guiding framework for research. The present authors focus on 3 questions central to defining the causes and consequences of PMT. The 1st question asks why one should conduct PMT research. One justification is that maltreatment anchors one end of a continuum of parental practices whose effects on children merit psychological study. The question concerning definitional clarity is related to parental practices that are of sufficient salience, intensity, and severity to have normative detriments to offspring and that are of concern to policy makers. The question of what issues should be studied is discussed.
Toth, S. L. (1991). Psychological maltreatment: Can an integration of research, policy, and intervention efforts be achieved? Development and Psychopathology, 3(1), 103-109.
Reviews the recommendations and definitions of R. A. McGee and D. A. Wolfe (see PA, Vol 79:1837) concerning child psychological maltreatment (PMT) within the context of policy formation and intervention for children who are victims of PMT. The implications of developing a definition of PMT for research purposes, of limiting PMT to instances in which sexual and physical abuse are not present, and of eliminating cultural conditions from consideration in the definition are critically examined. It is argued that the definitional approach to PMT proposed by McGee and Wolfe falls short of fulfilling criteria necessary to improve research efforts, and would have minimal positive impact on policies affecting children exposed to PMT. In fact, while some excellent suggestions are made, McGee and Wolfe fail to articulate clearly an actual operational definition of PMT.
Varia, R., Abidin, R., & Dass P. (1996). Perceptions of abuse: Effects on adult psychological and social adjustment. Child Abuse and Neglect; 20(6) 511-526.
This study investigates perceptions of abuse (psychological, physical, and sexual) and later adult psychological and social adjustment in a nonclinical sample of 174 parents of children aged 1-10 yrs. Ss completed questionnaires assessing, among other things, demographics, maltreatment, and self-esteem. A subgroup of abused individuals was identified (Minimizers), who reported levels of abuse above the mean, but failed to acknowledge themselves as abused. Analyses of variance revealed that abused individuals, both Acknowledgers and Minimizers, consistently had more psychological and social adjustment problems than the Nonabused group. In addition, individuals who fell into the Minimizing subgroup had more detrimental outcome than the abused group of Acknowledgers in a few areas, suggesting that the perception of past events (abuse) may be an important factor in determining future psychological adjustment.
Vissing, Y. M., Straus, M. A., Gelles, R. J., & Harrop, J. W. (1991). Verbal aggression by parents and psychosocial problems of children. Child Abuse and Neglect, 15, 223-238.
Analyses of data on a nationally representative sample of 3,346 American parents with a child under 18 living at home found that 63% reported one or more instances of verbal aggression, such as swearing and insulting the child. Children who experienced frequent verbal aggression from parents (as measured by the Conflict Tactics Scales) exhibited higher rates of physical aggression, delinquency, and interpersonal problems than other children. This relationship is robust since it applies to preschool-, elementary school-, and high school-age children, to both boys and girls, and to children who were also physically punished as well as those who were not. Children who experienced both verbal aggression and severe physical violence exhibited the highest rates of aggression, delinquency, and interpersonal problems.
Vondra, J. I., Kolar, A. B., & Radigan, B. L. (1992). Psychological Maltreatment of Children. In R. T. Ammerman & M. Hersen (Eds.), Assessment of Family Violence: A Clinical and Legal Sourcebook, (pp. 253-290). New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
There is increasing conceptual and empirical evidence suggesting that psychological maltreatment represents a core issue within child maltreatment. Using this as a focal point, the authors examine the nature of psychological maltreatment, its identification throughout different developmental stages, assessment tools, and legal considerations for intervention. Case studies are presented to conclude the chapter.
Wald, M. S. (1991). Defining psychological maltreatment: The relationship between questions and answers. Development and Psychopathology, 3(1), 111-118.
Comments that R. A. McGee and D. A. Wolfe (see PA, Vol 79:1837) have not defined child psychological maltreatment (PMT) in a way that will facilitate research relevant to most of the policy issues regarding maltreatment. The present author concedes that the article provides some useful conceptual ideas for researchers interested in studying the antecedents of poor emotional development in children, but focuses on its weaknesses rather than points of agreement. Some problematic areas in McGee and Wolfe's arguments include their criticisms of other definitions of PMT, their attempt to consider PMT as separate from physical and sexual maltreatment, their discussion on how researchers should define and conduct research on PMT, implications of their definition of PMT and proposed methodology, and the feasibility of using their proposed definition for any purpose.
Wasserman, N. M. (1990). Protecting children from child abuse (unpublished paper CD15758): National Clearinghouse on Child Abuse and Neglect Information.
This paper focuses on protecting children from child abuse. Definitions are provided for neglect and physical, sexual, and emotional abuse. Basic prevention strategies that children must learn to empower themselves are identified. Safety tips are listed, and guidelines for finding caretakers are offered. The need for honest and open communication between parents and their children is stressed.
Weimer, S.E. (1996). The development of self-love and managed care--or, reflections on being a tutor. Smith College Studies in Social Work; 66(3) 342-348.
The numbers of emotionally deprived children or children at risk who are referred to child treatment programs are on the rise. A case report focuses on the therapeutic relationship as it develops with such a child, an 11-yr-old boy who had been taken from his mother for the 3rd time because of gross neglect and who had been referred for disruptive behavior and threats to kill himself. The author questions the impact managed care will have on the boy's treatment. Concepts of a holding environment, personalization (development of self- love, a necessary precursor to object love), the good-enough mother, and use of the therapist as a real person who furthers development, are highlighted.
Wright, S. A. (1994). Physical and emotional abuse and neglect of preschool children: A literature review. Australian Occupational Therapy Journal, 41(2), 55-63.
Early studies of the consequences of maltreatment for preschool children were plagued by numerous methodological difficulties, including a lack of theoretical frameworks. More recent studies have investigated the complex interaction of factors, such as the environment and pre-existing child characteristics. This review examines the effects of maltreatment on preschool children in four areas: (i) developmental delay; (ii) cognitive competence; (iii) emotional development (attachment relationships and empathy); and (iv) social development. The developmental domains requiring further investigation are highlighted: motor, self-care and play skills of abused preschoolers. Recommendations are made regarding the contribution of occupational therapy to these areas.
Yates, A. (1982). Legal issues in psychological abuse of children. Clinical Pediatrics, 21(10), 587-590.
Discusses assessment by the pediatrician of a variety of emotional disorders in children, many of which may seem related to adverse parental attitudes and actions. It is important for the pediatrician to appreciate the judicial system's constraints in defining psychological abuse so that, when appropriate, legal interventions can be actively encouraged. Cases most likely to be adjudicated are those in which the caretaker's harmful acts and attitudes can be casually related to measurable emotional damage in the child. Other cases that may be suitable are those in which the parent's actions are patently atrocious or the parents have consistently refused to obtain treatment for a seriously disturbed child. Cases that satisfy these criteria, and some which do not, are presented.
Zuriff, G. (1988). A quick solution to the psychologist's problem of defining "psychological maltreatment". American Psychologist, 43(3), 201.
Comments that the definition of psychological maltreatment is not an appropriate task for psychologists as scientists or researchers. Psychologists should leave the determination of benefit and harm to the fields of law, ethics, and religion.